I.	Introduction
A.	Efficiency & Fairness
	1.	Although economists look at efficiency of corp. form, courts usually look at fairness.  Courts are not trained in economics and losers in ct prefer to hear about morality rather than efficiency.  However, efficiency and fairness analysis usually end in the same result.
	2.	What is meant by efficiency?  Usually Kaldor-Hicks efficiency – total net wealth creation
		a.	Pareto Efficiency – resources are distributed so that no reallocation can make at least one person better off without leaving someone else worse off.  Theoretical and does not take moral issues into account at all.
		b.	Kaldor-Hicks Efficiency – efficient if the transaction produces total gains greater than the externality costs.  However, it does not stipulate that payments actually be made.
	3.	State corporate law creates efficiency – if state has inefficient laws that do no protect investors, it will be reflected in the stock price.
	4.	Having stable, predictable corporate law system reduces transaction costs in carrying out as a corp. – part of the reason why Delaware is so prevalent in corp. law.   
B.	Economics of the Firm
	1.	Coarse theorem
		a.	Transactions costs - use of the firm reduces transactions costs – allows complex and repetitive transactions to be accomplished more cheaply.
		b.	Agency costs – the firm creates agency costs – misalignment of incentives between the owners and managers.	
	2.	Agency costs – composed of 3 different kinds of costs (Jensen and Meckling)
		a.	Monitoring costs – costs that owners expense to assure agent loyalty
		b.	Bonding costs – costs that agents expend to assure owners of their reliability
		c.	Residual costs – any inefficiency arising from misaligned incentives
C.	Efficiency of the Corporate Form
	1.	Artificial entity status – cheaper transaction costs – do not need to get all owners’ permission.  Much more stable than partnership.
	2.	Freely transferable shares – much easier to raise capital – more flexibility and liquidity – speedy access and more stable than a partnership.  Allows for diversification by s/h in the market… makes capital more easily available for high risk ventures.
	3.	Limited liability – greatly reduces risk and the cost of investing – less investigation necessary.  Makes it easier to transfer shares… do not need to look at financial status of co-owners and creates workable market price.  Also reduces monitoring costs since lenders will more closely monitor activity.
	4.	Centralized management – reduces costs for larger firms:
		a.	a centralized body can gather info and process it more cheaply than in a p-ship
		b.	people can get more specialized in handling the problem
		–  creates a lot of the utility, but also creates the agency costs
D.	Collective Action Problems
	1.	The collective action problem
		a.	When corp. large enough and ownership is heavily divided, no one’s stock ownership gives them sufficient incentive to monitor management.  As a result, waste and inefficiency will go uncorrected.
		b.	Total of monitoring go up with additional owners, but benefits of monitoring do not. 
		c.		Two forms of collective action problems
			(1)	Rational apathy - In large corp. where ownership interest is divided up among many individuals, the ownership by any one investor may be so small that the person has no Incentive to incur monitoring and investigation costs.
			(2)	Free rider problem – invest nothing in monitoring because little control means your vote has no real effect… investigation is lost money.  No reason to incur info costs to vote at all.
	2.	Fiduciary duties help to ameliorate collective action problems of investors – managers and directors make an implied promise that the extremely broad and flexible legal powers that they are given over corp. process and prop. will be used only in an honest, good faith effort to advance the purposes of the corp.
		a.	Duty of Loyalty – the power of managers must be used for the benefit of the corp., not for their own personal benefit.  If self-dealing, the manager must prove the fairness of all aspects of the transaction.  Director must also avoid stealing corp. opportunity.
		b.	Duty of Care – “Business Judgment” rule – standard of care for managers – allows managers to be less risk adverse and take risks for diversified owners. 
	3.	Derivative lawsuits – technically two claims:
		a.	A claim by a s/h against the directors that charges that the board has not done its duty because it has improperly failed or neglected to assert a legal claim that the corp. has against one of them.
		b.	The underlying breach of duty claim itself.
		-  The recovery in any derivative suit goes to the corp. itself and not the s/h.		
E.	Shareholder Rights
	1.	Right to sell – market for corp. control – if mismanagement, the value of the stock sells to the point where corp. is taken over and management is replaced… M&A through tender offers.
	2.	Right to vote – elect directors and proxy fights
	3.	Right to sue – derivative suits and suits for breach of fiduciary duties 
F.	Protection of Voting Rights
	1.	Statutory protections – Statutes give s/h right to vote on fundamental corp. transactions, such as mergers, sales of all assets, change in corp. charter, or dissolution of the enterprise.  Also, right to elect directors at annual meeting.  Some statutes also allow for special meetings.
	2.	Fiduciary protections – Duty of loyalty creates duty of disclosure so that s/h can make legitimate decision on vote.  Also, limitations on directors’ ability to affect the outcome of the vote… need legitimate and compelling justification.
	3.	Federal protections – 1934 Act regulates what corp. cannot contain in solicitation of proxies (Rule 14-a) and it regulates false or misleading statements in proxy solicitation materials (Rule 14-a(9)).
G.	Hostile Takeovers
	1.	Hostile takeover theory – Achieves efficiency because poor and improper management decisions will reduce stock price, which will lead to increased incentives to acquire control and replace mgmt.  Can pay premium to current s/h because of total expected gain from replacing mgmt.
	2.	Defense of a hostile takeover must satisfy intermediate form of judicial review because of conflict of interest for directors.

II.	Agency
A.	The Agency Relationship
	1.	Fundamental issues to joint investing: (1) Formation and termination – right to terminate/sell, (2) Control, (3) Risk – liability, (4) Excess returns – claims to net income	
	2.	Agency is the fiduciary relation that results from the manifestation of consent by the P to the A that the A shall act on his behalf and subject to his control and consent by the A to so act.  It is a voluntary K relationship where one party has the ability to affect the legal relations of another for the P’s benefit.
	3.	The agency relationship is terminable at will – either side can revoke at any time
  	4.	A breach of K for agency only brings damages, not specific performance
	5.	A secured lender does not create agency – does not protect the interest of the P
B.	Scope of Authority
	1.	An agent can be either a general agent or a specific agent (single act or transaction)
	2.	Both parties must manifest their intention that the agency exist.  The A must reasonably understand from the action or speech of the P that he has been authorized to act on the P’s behalf.
	3.	Actual Authority – from perspective of reasonable A
		a.	Express authority – Expressly given by P to A.
		b.	Implied/incidental authority – Authority to perform implementing steps that are ordinarily done in connection with facilitation the main authorized act.
	4.	Apparent Authority – from perspective of reasonable third person
		a.	Apparent authority – reasonable from contact with the P to conclude that the A has authority.  Equitable remedy provided to prevent unfairness to third parties.  Holds even if the P has expressly limited A’s actions.  If it is an ordinary transaction that the agent has repeatedly done in the past, it may bind the principal.
		b.	Inherent authority – consequences imposed upon P’s by law.  A has the power to bind P even against P’s wishes as long as it is reasonable by third person to assume authority in the A and to rely upon it (e.g., employee title).
	5.	Ratification – when agent goes above authority, P can affirm K afterwards.  However, he can be bound under apparent authority for actions by A, even if A cannot repay P.  Creates mutuality.
		-  	Any action by a P, including knowing delay, can ratify the A’s work.  P must repudiate immediately upon knowledge.
C.	Agent’s Duties to Principal
	1.	The A’s duties to P:
		a.	Obedience – duty to respect definition of the scope of the authority
		b.	Loyalty – good faith effort to advance the purpose of the agency achieving no self-benefit that is not
			(1)	disclosed,
			(2)	consented to, or
			(3)	fair – fairness for historical reasons and asymmetrical relationship
		c.	Care – negligence standard
	2.	Any profit made by A on transactions related to the agency go to the P unless agreed otherwise – duty to account.  This is true even if no breach of trust.
	3.	There is no need for damage to collect money under fiduciary law (Tarnowski).  The law assumes the best case scenario for trustees in cases of breach. (e.g., if stock fluctuated between $9 & $16, court would give $7)… profits that would have accrued to the trust if there had been no breach.
	4.	A trustee cannot deal in his individual capacity with the trust prop. (in re Gleeson)  This is true even if good faith and the trust loses no money in the dealings.  Completely eliminates self-dealing w/ a trust.  Unfair, but simple law. 
	5.	Partners or owners of joint ventures must inform one another about other business opportunities that arise out of the joint partnership before they take it for themself. (Meinhard)  This does not require an offer for a stake in the deal, only disclosure of availability… gives other p-ner opportunity to compete.
	6.	The P’s duty to A – contractual duties and compensation.
D.	Risk of Liability
	1.	Only the “master-servant” relationship triggers respondeat superior and vicarious liability
	2.	If the P has a right to control the details of the way in which the agent goes about his task, the agent is an employee or servant.  If P has limited control rights, the agent is an independent contractor. (R2d, Agency §2).  List of factors: (R2d, Agency §220)
		a.	control provided in agreement,
		b.	required skill to perform,
		c.	whether the person employed is engaged in a distinct occupation or business,
		d.	who provides tools and place of work,
		e.	length of time of the employment,
		f.	method of payment – by hr or by job,
		g.	intent of parties,
		h.	whether or not regular business of employer.
		i.	who owns the goods/property involved.  
	4.	Vicarious liability
		a.	A master is subject to liability for the torts of his servants committed while acting in the scope of their employment. (R2d, Agency §219)
		b.	If outside of scope of employment, no liability unless:
			(1)	the master intended the conduct or consequences,
			(2)	the master was negligent or reckless,
			(3)	the conduct violates a non-delegable duty of the master, or
			(4)	the servant purported to act or to speak on behalf of the P and there was reliance upon apparent authority.
		c.	Scope of conduct
			(1)	Conduct within scope of conduct if:
				(a)	it is of the kind he is employed to perform,
				(b)	it occurs substantially within the authorized time and space limits,
				(c)	it is actuated, at least in part, by a purpose to serve the master, and
				(d)	if force is intentionally used by the servant against another, the use of the force is not unexpected by the master.
			(2)	Can include acts forbidden by P, consciously illegal acts, or failure to act. 
		d.	Theoretical basis for vicarious liability
			(1)	risk spreading
			(2)	allocation of resources

III.	Partnerships
A.	Introduction
	1.	P-ship is a voluntary K relationship in which 2 or more people carry on a business jointly for profit.
	2.	P-ship helps with capital financing – agency cost of debt too high if owner has to borrow too much.  Debt-holder is not willing to accept additional risk at low interest rate if he is not receiving excess profits.
	3.	Disadvantages of p-ship as opposed to corp:
		a.	higher transaction costs
		b.	corp has indefinite duration… p-ship is less stable
		c.	investors are personally liable for p-ship activities if p-ship funds are insufficient.  	P-ners are jointly and severably liable for K and tort claims.
		d.	very easy to transfer interest in corp., but harder to transfer p-ship interest
	4.	P-ship rights
		a.	tenant in p-ship in p-ship prop
		b.	right to participate in p-ship profits as stated in K – only interest that can be freely transferred w/o consent of other p-ners – not easy to sell w/o right to mgmt. and assets.
		c.	right to management as stated in K
B.	UPA/RUPA
	1.	United Partnership Act (UPA) is default rules for P-ship agreements.  However, they are overriden by express provisions of the p-ship K, unless the K term is invalid or contrary to public policy.
	2.	Revised UPA (RUPA) created several years ago to correct some of the problems with the original UPA, but UPA still majority law.
	3.	Default rules for UPA… 3 kinds of rules:
		a.	Control
			(1)	§18(a) – equal sharing of profits and losses and p-ners have a right to return from their contributions.
			(2)	§18(e) – all p-ners have equal right to management and control
			(3)	§18(g) – no member can become a p-ner w/o consent of all p-ners
			(4)	§18(h)
				(a)	If within the scope of the p-ship K, majority vote rules… minority does not have a veto.
					-	If 2 person p-ship, 1 p-ner is not majority (Nabisco)
				(b)	However, if the issue would force a modification of the p-ship K, he decision must be unanimous… veto power.
			(5)	§19 – right to see books
		b.	Agency
			(1)	§9.1 – every p-ner is an agent of the p-ship and binds the p-ship for normal activities unless there is no authority and the recipient knows it.  Must be in ordinary course of business.
			(2)	§9.3 – p-ners cannot act for specific unusual, non-operational activities w/o consent of all p-ners (e.g., selling off major assets)
		c.	Liability
			(1)	§13 – p-ship bound by a p-ner’s wrongful act
			(1)	§15 – joint and several liability
			(2)	§16(1) – an outsider can be estopped into liability because of reasonable reliance of his statement that he is a p-ner
C.	Partnership Formation
	1.	P-ship formation does not require formalities… it is the default arrangement for firms.
	2.	§6 – a p-ship is an assoc. of 2 or more people to carry on as co-owners a business for profit.
	3.	What establishes the p-ship?  Need intent to act as a p-ship
		a.	§7(2)	 - co-ownership does NOT establish a p-ship
		b.	§7(3) – share of gross returns (revenue) does NOT establish a p-ship
		c.	§7(4) – receipt of a share of the profits is prima facie evidence of p-ship, unless payment is:.
			(1)	an installment payment of debt
			(2)	wages of an employee or rent to a landlord
			(3)	an annuity
			(4)	interest on a loan that varies w/ profits of the business
			(5)	consideration for sale of goodwill or other prop by installments
		d.	Context of case matters – ct more likely to find p-ship if K breach rather than torts liab.	
		e.	Do not need to have a capital contribution to be a p-ner (Vohland v. Sweet)
	4.	Sub-partnerships
		a.	Where there is a p-ship within a larger p-ship
		b.	This occurs when the main p-ners are not aware of someone bringing in another person to share in the business.  Without their consent, he is not a p-ner.  The person becomes a sub-p-ner with the p-ner who involved him.
D.	Creditor’s Rights
	1.	Retiring p-ners
		a.	Withdrawing p-ner still has liability for obligations incurred prior to his departure, but no control over the business.
		b.	The retiring p-ner is not liable for new liabilities after he withdraws and gives notice. 
		c.	A retiring p-ner can be let off the hook if creditors agree to do so and the remaining     p-ners agree.  Cts are very liberal on creditor agreement to retiring p-ner.  If creditor knows and extends credit, that is enough. §36(2)
		d.	Dissolution - §36(1) – dissolution does not relieve p-ners of liab.  Dissolution causes the p-ship relationship to cease as a going concern, but does not mean termination.
		e.	A material alteration in a debt or performance K in which the p-ship is involved affects their obligation and can let the withdrawing p-ner off the hook.  (§36(3) and Munn v. Scalera) 
	2.	P-ship v. individual prop
		a.	P-ship has completely separate prop.
			(1)	P-ship prop is owned by p-ners as “tenants in p-ship” (§25(1)). 
			(2)	However, a p-ner cannot possess or assign rights in the p-ship prop, a p-ners heirs cannot inherit it, and a p-ner’s personal creditors cannot attach or execute upon it. (§25(2))	
			(3)	P-ners do not own the assets, but rather the rights to the net financial return that these assets generate… profits and losses and distributions (§§26,27).  They can transfer profit interests to others.
		b.	P-ship can go into bankruptcy w/o individual p-ners being bankrupt.	
		c.	Priority of personal assets
			(1)	In bankruptcy, creditors or p-ship have priority in p-ship assets and equal rights in individual assets of p-ners (in re Comark, Bankrupcy Reform Act, and RUPA)
			(2)	If not bankruptcy (e.g., deceased p-ners), jingle rule applies – p-ship creditors have first priority in p-ners personal prop. (UPA §40(h)&(i))
	3.	New p-ners are liable for old p-ship debts only to the extent of p-ship prop. (§17)
E.	P-ship Voting, Accounting, and Dissolution
	1.	Voting is normally 1 vote per person by default, but it can be changed by agreement.  P-ners may want otherwise because of :
		a.		different contribution to p-ship or % of profits
	b.	equal capital, but vastly unequal personal wealth – wealthier person wants control – more at risk.
	2.	Accounting – normal accounting rules - Profits and Loss statement, Balance sheet – equity is capital account for p-ners, and cash flows statement
	3.	Dissolution
	a.	Dissolution is the change in relation of the p-ners caused by any p-ner ceasing to be associated in the carrying on as distinguished from the winding up of the business. (§29)  Dissolution is when p-ners cease to carry on the business together, Termination is when all p-ship affairs are wound up.	
		b.	Dissolution when (§31)
			(1)	p-ner leaves, dies, or becomes bankrupt,
			(2)	by terms of the p-ship K, the p-ship expires (either by time or mission)
			(3)	by express will of any p-ner 
		c.	If dissolution is caused by valid expulsion of p-ner and the expelled p-ner is discharged from all p-ship liab, the p-ner shall only receive cash, not p-ship assets. (§38(1))
		d.	With RUPA, the leaving of a p-ner can either be a dissolution or disassociation.  Disassociation means continuance of P-ship. (§§601-800)
		e.	Dissolution in contravention of p-ship agreement – wrongful dissolution
			(1)	Does not necessarily lead to windup – p-ship can continue by paying withdrawing p-ner… does not affect creditor rights
			(2)	Other P-ners have right to damages caused by wrongful dissolution
	4.	In winding up, assets are sold and cash is distributed unless all p-ners agree to like-kind distribution or part of p-ship agreement. (Dreifuerst).  Lawful dissolution gives each p-ner the right to have the business liquidated and his share of the surplus paid in cash.
		a.	However, exception if assets are not marketable, no creditors to be paid from proceeds, and an in-kind distribution is fair (Dreifuerst)
		b.	Why is cash better?
			(1)	In-kind hurts creditors – whole worth more than individual assets
			(2)	A sale provides a more accurate means of establishing the FMV of the assets.
		c.	A minority rule provides a right of appraisal for the withdrawing p-ner and the rest of the p-ners can continue on the business.
	5.	Life-span of P-ship – at will or for term
		a.	P-ners are not obligated to continue in the p-ship until all of the initial losses have been recovered.  
		b.	P-ners may agree to continue in a business until a certain sum of money is earned or one or more p-ners recoup their investments, or until certain debts or paid, or until certain prop can be disposed of on favorable terms.  This can even be implied, but there must be evidence of the implied term. (Page)
c.	P-ship at will can be dissolved by express will of any p-ner, but must be done so in good faith.  If it is bad faith dissolution, it is a wrongful dissolution and the breaching p-ner is liable under §38(2)(a) – additional damages for breach
F.	Limited P-ships
	1.	General p-ners are the same as p-ners in a general p-ship
	2.	Limited p-ners
		a.	Limited liability – limited to p-ship contribution
		b.	Enjoy share of profits
		c.	Cannot participate in mgmt except voting on special events, such as dissolution.  If they participate too much, they might be considered general p-ners and lose limited liability (Control test - §303 of ULPA).
		d.	Are protected from general p-ners through fiduciary duty.
	3.	Limited p-ship, LLP, and LLC have pass-through tax treatment unless their equity is publicly traded.
	4.	Limited p-ners can use corporate veil as limit on liability (Delaney was overruled) – only hold p-ners liable if they hold themselves out as general p-ners.  If limited p-ner fails control test, he is liable to 3rd parties who reasonably believe that he is a general p-ner. (§303(a))
	5.	LLP’s and LLC’s
		a.	Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) – allowed by statute in majority of states.
			(1)	Designed to protect professional p-ships (lawyers, accountants)
			(2)	Most statutes only limit liability from tort claims against other p-ners, not K claims.  Minority of states have allowed protection from K claims as well.
			(3)	Some also have minimum capitalization or insurance requirements.
		b.	Limited Liability Corporation (LLC)
			(1)	Limited liability, but control also allowed unlike limited p-ship
			(2)	Members (investors) can control the firm or elect managers to do so.
			(3)	Resignation of a member does not lead to dissolution.
			(4)	Generally qualifies for pass-through tax treatment unless it has 3 of the 4:
				1. limited liability, 2. centralized mgmt, 3. free transfer of ownership, and
				4. continuity of life.
				-  then it has corp. treatment.

IV.	Capital Structure and Protection of Creditors
A.	Basic Capital Claims on Corp
	1.	Debt
		a.	Debt is generally less risky for investors
		b.	Limited upside risk
		c.	Usually have maturity date.
		d. 	Normally no fiduciary duty owed to bondholders unless impending insolvency.  
		e.	If bond is publicly traded, there is usually a trustee appointed to interact with the issuer on behalf of the bondholders to solve collective action problems.
	2.	Common stock
		a.	Unlimited upside risk and limited downside risk because of limited liability
		b.	Most important feature is control over residual rights to the corp’s assets and income.
		c.	Common stock has voting rights… giving s/h voting rights makes mgmt less risk averse than they would otherwise be.  
	3.	Preferred stock
		a.	Preferred stock is any deviation from normal liquidation or dividend rights
		b.	Generally have enhanced dividend rights and priority claim on assets upon liquidation - less risky than common stock.
		c.	Normally does not vote if dividends are not in arrears except for exceptional events (e.g., merger) – vote is class vote..
B.	Capital Structure
	1.	Cost of debt = (market price of bonds / annual return) * (1 - marginal tax rate)
	2.	Cost of stock determined by:
		a.	the discount of expected dividend model,
			(1)	cost = dividend yield [or mkt price/div] + growth rate in future dividends
			(2)	most useful when stable earnings and dividends.
		b.	the CAPM, or
			(1)	Risky ventures require higher compensation – securities risk linked to volatility of stock..  Systematic risk measured by Beta… higher Beta more risk.
			(2)	cost = risk free rate + [(expected return for mkt portfolio - risk free rate) * Beta]	-  Mkt portfolio is usually S&P 500
		c.	historical average equity risk premia – just assumes equity costs 3% more than debt because of historical analysis.
	3.	Optimal balance
		a.	Value of debt
			(1)	tax deduction for interest
			(2)	leveraging of equity investment
			–	With limited liab, equity holders do suffer only limited downside risk, but unlimited upside risk… incentive to leverage, especially since they are diversified
			(3)	since there is normally less risk to a bondholder than a s/h, it is normally cheaper to sell to them.
		b.	Risk of excessive debt
			(1)	Interest rate and credit terms become worse as the corp’s risk gets worse.
			(2)	Corp. mgmt does not want to take excessive risk and place their jobs at risk… they cannot diversify firm specific risk.
			(3)	Bankruptcy costs
		c.	Modigliano & Miller Irrelevance Hypothesis – capital structure is irrelevant if there are no taxes and cap mkts are completely efficient w/o transaction costs.  The value of a firm is derived from its assets… debt & equity only measures who has claim to the return from its assets.
			-	Obviously this theory is not true in the real world because of taxes, transaction costs, and agency costs of mgmt risk aversion.
C.	Protection of Creditors
	1.	Private Protections
		a.	Security interests – prop right to specific prop that becomes possessory upon default – reduces overall risk
 		b.	Warranties – promise by borrowers that certain facts are true or will be at the time of the closing of the transaction.  Violation of warranty brings breach of K damages in addition to possible fraud.
		c.	Covenants – promises that the corp. makes to the lender.
			(1)	Creditors control activities that will hurt them – limited dividend or stock repurchase amounts.
	  		(2)	Financial covenants - early warning systems on business performance – default upon missing ratio and must correct soon or payment is accelerated.
	2.	Public Law Protections
		-	Law wants to protect against exploitive equity opportunism once debtors have already given s/h money.
		a.	Minimum Capitalization Requirements – NO minimum cap requirements in the U.S., but there are in other countries
		b.	Dividend Restrictions – distributions cannot be made if they would make the corp. insolvent.  Also traditionally could not distribute beyond par value, but not true today.
			-	two tests for insolvency:
			(1)	inability to meet cash flows or
			(2)	balance sheet w/ assets measured at FMV.
		c.	Fiduciary Duties to Creditors – if firm insolvent, directors owe duty of loyalty to creditors.  Directors cannot take equity opportunism and take excessive risks with the creditors’ money.
		d.	Ex Post Protections
			(1)	Fraudulent Conveyance
		(a)	Allowed in two circumstances:
			(i)	Present or future creditors may void transfers made w/ actual intent to delay, hinder, or defraud any creditor (Uniform Fraudulent Transfer Act §4(a)(1))
			(ii)	Creditors can void transfers by establishing that they were either actual or constructive frauds on creditors. (UFTA §4(a)(2)) 
				A)	transfers w/o fair compensation and insolvent or
				B)	debtor intends or believes he will be unable to pay debt and unreasonably small capitalization..
		(b)	Based on implied representation in credit K that borrower will use assets in business in a good faith attempt to produce income subject to regular business risks and normal dividend distributions. 
		(c)	Cts will usually consider transfer OK as long as it is a reasonably fair value and arms-length basis.
		(d)	If the purchaser of assets has given value and is a bona fide purchaser, he has a lien in the prop for the amount of value given
		(e)	Most significant today in LBO’s and tobacco co. spin offs to avoid torts claims
	(2)	Equitable Subordination
		(a)	Ct can declare that debt in the co’s b/s should be treated as equity -  subordinated to other debt… protects other creditors
		(b)	Usually done in bankruptcy where the subordinated creditor is also an equity holder and/or officer of the corp.
		(c)	Usually need some sort of intent to defraud creditors (Costello)  Undercapitalization is evidence, but not enough to show fraudulent intent (Costello)
	(3)	Piercing the Corp. Veil – equitable doctrine – doctrine is rarely used in practice
				(a)	If the veil is pierced, the s/h loses limited liab. and creditors can go after the personal assets of the s/h.
				(b)	Veil is pierced if: (Sea-Land Services)
					(i)	unity of interest and ownership such that the separate personalities of the corp. and the individual s/h no longer exist and
					(ii)	fiction of separate corp. would sanction fraud or injustice
						–	if reasonable investigation by creditor would show problems, ct may hold that the creditor took the risk.
				(c)	Piercing usually done if:  disregard of corp. formalities, thin capitalization, small number of s/h, active involvement by s/h in mgmt, and/or commingling of funds – fact based mix of factors
				(d)	Can reverse pierce to get assets of corp. for personal suit or to pierce the veil of another corp. that the s/h owns. (Sea-Land Services)
				(e)	Usually more important in K cases than in tort cases – more obvious intent to defraud.  Need more than just undercapitalization… also need some fraudulent intent. (Walkovszky)

V.	Superstructure of Corporate Law
A.	Formation of Corporation
	1.	To incorporate, simply need to file article/certificate of incorporation w/ secretary of state and pay fee.  In the document, you must identify people who will act as incorporators – run corp until directors are appointed.
		-	Originally, incorporation had to be specifically granted by the legislature for a specific purpose and had strict limitations on duration, capitalization, amendments to charter, etc.  However, this eroded over the years.
	2.	Corporate Charter:
		a.	Corp charter must contain certain terms: 
			(1)	There must be voting stock
			(2)	There must be a board of directors with limited structural options – usually will provide rules for electing board (e.g., staggered) and range for size of board
			(3)	Requirements for s/h vote on certain transactions - dissolution, sale of assets, or merger.  
			-	However, generally the corp. charter is a K that is free to be customized.
			-	Also generally contains: identity of original incorporators, corp’s name, its business (although usually “to engage in any lawful business” used today), and will establish the corp’s original capital structure, including how many shares, classes of shares, and characteristics of the different classes.
		b.	To amend corp. charter, first, need the board to adopt a resolution recommending the amendment and create a proxy for s/h.  Then a majority of all shares entitled to vote and a majority of all shares of all shares of any class of stock entitled to a class vote must approve the amendment – Directors must initiate charter amendment.  Change in number of authorized shares must be done through charter amendment.
	3.	After directors are appointed, the board holds a meeting to appoint officers, capital structures, sell stock, designate corp. agents.  After that, annual meetings to handle these issues unless special meeting is called.
	4.	Bylaws
		a.	Bylaws are subordinate to charter and corp. statutes
		b.	Normally, the Board of Directors creates the corp’s bylaws – if not mandatory, always allowable if stated in charter.
			-	Bylaws are more operational day to day issues, within the authority given to the board.  Also contain control issues not mentioned in the charter (e.g., exact number of board, method of voting (i.e., cumulative), the offices of the corp., empowerment for calling a s/h meeting, board quorum requirements, etc.)
		c.	However, the s/h’s with the ability to amend bylaws as well - DE §109.
			-	Sometimes question of whose decision is superior, bd or s/h.  May be breach of loyalty if improper entrenchment motive for bd.
	5.	Good state corp. law should have the following characteristics:
		a.	cheap and easy structure for organizing
		b.	easy deviation from default rules – customization
		c.	flexibility in mgmt
		d.	provide assurances to capital that an appropriate amount of risk will be taken
B.	Board of Directors
	1.	Board has mgmt power (DE §141(a)) - power to appoint/remove officers, direct enterprise activity, issue stock, dividends, initiate M&A and dissolutions, and call s/h meetings.
		a.	Bd powers are only exercised at meetings unless all directors consent in writing to act w/o meeting.  W/o formality, bd resolutions have no power.
			-	The meeting minimizes the risk of manipulation of the process of governance.  Strong willed person cannot divide and conquer.
		b.	Proper notice of the meetings must be given.   
		c.	Must have a quorum (majority of directors) to business.  If quorum is present, passing a resolution only requires a majority vote of those present unless charter provides for supermajority vote on an issue – each director has one vote.
		d.	Directors have to be present to vote… they cannot give proxies to others.
		e.	Bd can delegate to a committee, but matters that require bd action by statute cannot be delegated to a committee for final action.  If non-directors are in a committee, the committee can only be advisory.
	2.	Board can be of any size – usually stated in certificate as a range and amt fixed in bylaws 
	3.	Annual meeting is required unless directors are elected by written consent. (DE §211)
	4.	Staggered board – option to have 1/3 of the board elected each yr (1/4 for NY)… bd replaced every 3 yrs…included in charter - important in takeovers – Institutional investors do not like them and will usually not allow them after IPO – only found normally in small new corps.
	5.	Directors owe a duty to the corp. as an entity.
	6.	Directors are not agents of the s/h – they are entitled to good faith business judgment.  They are not required by duty to follow the judgment or wishes of the majority of s/h.  (Automatic Self-Cleaning Filter)  More a republican form of governance than a direct democracy.  If majority of s/h disagrees w/ bd, they can vote to remove them.
	7.	Removing directors from the board
		a.	Shareholders can remove directors with or without cause in most states (DE §141(k) & RMBCA §808).  Exception in NY…s/h cannot remove w/o cause unless granted in charter… must wait until annual meeting.
		b.	Directors cannot remove each other from the bd – only removed by judicial injunction (because of crooked, insane, or inept directors) through equitable fiduciary laws and by s/h.  However, bd can simply maneuver around him through committees.
		c.	Can call for a s/h meeting to remove a bd member… problem if bd is the only one who can call meetings.  Some states require that a 10% interest in stock can call a meeting.
		d.	DE §228 – consent statute – exists in other states as well
			(1)	Any corp. action that could be taken at a meeting can be done w/o a meeting as long as they have enough votes consenting and file it w/ the secretary.
			(2)	Originally thought to be administrative convenience, but developed into a method of removing dir’s w/o their knowledge.  It’s much easier and helps in takeovers.
			(3)	Practical problems with record date for voting though.
	8.	Blank check preferred stock
		a.	Preferred stock w/o specific terms – authorized by s/h in charter and bd given authority to fix specific terms 
		b.	Statutes specifically allow blank check to permit bd to act quickly when opportunity comes about.  Often used for small acquisitions where s/h resolution unnecessary.
		c.	Controversial because there is no authority required and it does not show up on b/s.  Often used as takeover defense…poison pill -  institutional investors do not like blank check..
C.	Corporate Officers
	1.	Corp. charter usually gives bd the power to appoint officers and create offices as appropriate.  They have the power to delegate authority to officers as they see fit.
	2.	The bd can remove officers with or without cause, but may be breach of long-term employment K if without cause.
	3.	Corp. officers are usually those executives who receive their formal appointments directly from the bd.
	4.	Unlike directors, officers are agents of the corp., the same as other employees, and are subject to the fiduciary duties of agents.
D.	Shareholder Rights
	1.	Right to Vote – w/o right to vote, common s/h extremely vulnerable – last in pecking order on company assets and distributions.  Must have at least 1 class of voting stock.
		a.	Right to corp. info.
			(1)	State law does not mandate annual reports or periodic reporting (SEC does and can be required by charter or bylaw)
			(2)	S/h have a right to inspect the corporate books and records for a proper purpose (DE §220, RMBCA, and NY §624).
			(3)	Proper purpose means relating to status as a s/h.
				(a)	Desire to solicit proxies to oppose mgmt is related and proper purpose.
				(b)	Only the primary purpose is relevant… can have improper secondary purposes (General Time)
			(4)	Books include stock list (listing of s/h and amounts owned) and books and records (minutes and accounting #’s).
				(a)	Cts much more open on giving stock lists… less scrutiny on proper purpose.  They are very important in proxy fights.  Stock lists are not as easily abused. Burden is on corp. to prove improper use (DE §220(c))
				(b)	Inspection of books and records much more intrusive, costly, more damaging confidential info, and more easily misused.  Cts much tougher on s/h.  Burden is on s/h to prove proper use and stricter scrutiny applied on motives and consequences (Leviton Manufacturing).
					(i)	Investigation of waste and mismanagement is a proper purpose, but must have convincing evidence of impropriety before books inspection is allowed. (Leviton Manufacting)
					(ii)	Investigation for personal accounting purposes is individual and not related to position as s/h (Leviton)
					(iii)	Valuation of investment in a corp is proper purpose, particularly as minority s/h in private corp. (Leviton)
					(iv)	The ct can narrow the scope of the right to inspect books to include only certain necessary books and records that are related to the proper purpose.  The s/h has the burden to prove the necessity of each category of books and records (Leviton)
						Leviton – public corp. bought share in private close corp.  Wanted to inspect books for its own accounting purposes, to investigate waste and to facilitate further merger through coercion.  Ct did not like merger coercion… but allowed access to certain books (but not all) based on valuation purpose.
				(c)	NY gives unqualified right to inspect balance sheet and income statement, but good faith must be proven for additional info. 
		b.	Right to an annual meeting of s/h – includes election of officers and any other material business events brought before the s/h.  If not held w/in 13 mos. of last meeting ct will promptly require a meeting to be held upon s/h petition. (DE §211)
		c.	Right to vote by proxy (DE §216)
			(1)	S/h are permitted to give proxies to agents to vote on meeting matters.  As agents, they must vote as s/h wants.
			(2)	Mgmt is permitted to collect proxies on behalf of an at the expense of the corp.
			(3)	W/o proxies, quorum would be virtually impossible in large public corp.
			(4)	Proxy must be in writing and signed by s/h.  They are revocable unless the holder has contracted for proxy as a means to protect a legal interest or prop.
		d.	Cumulative voting
			(1)	Minority representation… creates weighted voting – fairer system.
			(2)	Each s/h votes # of shares owned * # of seats available and can use all votes on one director seat.
				-	# of shares to get 1 dir. seat = (total # of shares / (total # of dir.+1)) +1
			(3)	If cumulative voting, dir. removal rights are affected – more than majority vote. 
		e.	Right to remove directors – absent statute, only right to remove for cause, but majority of states have statute allowing for removal w/o cause including DE §141(k) and the RMBCA §8.08.  In NY, s/h cannot remove w/o cause unless granted in charter… must wait until annual meeting, NY (§706).
			-	What is cause?  Clearly fraud or unfair self-dealing, but not clear whether bad business judgment is.
		f.	Right to call special meetings of s/h
			(1)	S/h can only act at meeting that is duly called in which a quorum is present.
			(2)	Rights to call special meeting usually in charter.  If too easy to call, many expensive meetings will be held… if too hard, not enough meetings will be held and not enough monitoring will take place.
			(3)	Some states allow by statute a 10% s/h to call special meetings. (RMBCA)
		g.	S/h consent power – the power to by written consent in lieu of a meeting. DE §228
		h.	Class voting – each class is represented separately in voting…otherwise, minority classes (e.g., preferred) will be discriminated against.
		i.	Preemptive stock issuance rights - Majority rule is no preemptive s/h rights to first claim on new stock issuances unless in charter – RMBCA.  Minority rule in NY is preemptive right exists unless specifically excluded in charter.
	2.	Right to Sue
		a.	Right to hold officers and directors accountable for breach of fiduciary duties.
		b.	Derivative suits on behalf of the corp.  Sue directors for breach of duty for not suing themselves – s/h check on disloyal mgmt behavior.  Proceeds from suit above legal costs go to corp., not the s/h.
	3.	Right to Sell
		a.	Fundamental right to sell – constraint on agency costs of mgmt – looming threat of hostile tender offer creates corp. efficiency
		b.	Transferability can be restricted if small or close corp., or joint venture, where there is no reliance on public securities mkt.  (DE §202).  The other owners have a legitimate business reason to want a voice in the selection of a successor owner in the interest.
		c.	Poison pills are also effectively restraints on the right to sell.

VI.	Fiduciary Duties of Directors and Officers
A.	Introduction
	1.	Legal protection of the financial interests of investors takes the form of:
		a.	Formal governance mechanisms (voting) and
		b.	Judicially created and enforced obligation that requires corp. directors and officers to exercise all corp. powers in a good faith effort to advance the long-term financial interests of the corp.
	2.	The fiduciary duties
		a.	Duty of obedience – Fiduciary must act consistently w/ the legal document that create his authority.  A director cannot violate the corp. charter and must perform obligations imposed upon him by the charter (e.g., annual meeting requirements).  Whether or not the violation is in good faith is irrelevant for these purposes.  This duty is quite clear and little legal dispute over it.
		b.	Duty of care – A director or officer to exercise the care of an ordinarily prudent person in the same or similar circumstances
		c.	Duty of loyalty – Fiduciary must exercise his authority over the corp. processes or prop. in a good faith attempt to advance the corp’s interests and not simply to advance his own or other interests.
B.	Duty of Care
	1.	Business Judgment (BJ) Rule
		a.	D decision is said to constitute valid business judgment and give rise to no liability for ensuing losses if (process oriented):
			(1)	it is made by financially disinterested officers or directors
			(2)	who have become duly informed before exercising judgment,
			(3)	exercise their judgment in a good faith attempt to advance corp. interests, and
			(4)	who do not reach an “irrational” or “egregiously wrong” decision – related to an ex-post analysis of good faith… it is so wacky that the dir. could not have authorized the transaction in good faith… implied bad faith.
-	Waste – an expenditure that no person could conclude was a reasonable transaction – a waste can be authorized only by unanimous s/h action.
		b.	Alternate definition: The fact that a decision has lead to a corp. loss does not alone provide any basis for dir. or officer liab, providing that the decision was made in any informed way and in the good faith pursuit of corp. aims. – substantive law definition.
		c.	The practical effect is that dir. are normally liable only for inattention rather than bad judgment, no matter how foolish the decision is.  The court will not make an objective second guess of the bd’s decision.
	2.	Rationale for BJ Rule
		a.	If dir. is personally liable for bad decisions that lead to losses, he will become highly risk averse and forego many potentially profitable risky ventures.  Forcing too much care will restrain directors.
		b.	S/h wants to authorize the corp. to accept appropriate business risk to make a profit, particularly since s/h’s face limited downside risk.  They do not want directors to be risk averse.
		c.	S/h can diversify to avoid some of the risk from bad decisions.
		d.	Directors will not only be highly risk averse, but may not want the job… they would not benefit from most of the upside risk (fixed salary), but would face significant downside risk if they were liab. to s/h, particularly in a large corp. – small mistakes on their part could bankrupt them.
C.	Mediating the Risk Avoidance Effects of Duty of Care	
	1.	Statutory
		a.	Authorization for charter provisions eliminating potential dir. liability to the corp. for losses unaccompanied by breach of loyalty or bad faith (DE §102(b)(7)) – supported by the plaintiff’s bar and institutional investors… beneficial to encourage risk-taking.  
			(1)	Can be included either in original charter or by amendment
			(2)	Can still get preliminary injunction to force directors to take action
		b.	Authorization to indemnify officers and directors for losses that arise from activities undertaken as part of one’s corp. status (DE §145)
			(1)	Corp. can authorize to commit in advance to any agent, employee, officer, or dir. to reimburse reasonable expenses or losses of any sort arising from any actual or threatened judicial proceedings or investigations if those expenses or losses arise from actions undertaken by the individual on behalf of the corp. in good faith.	
			(2) 	No indemnification for expense associated w/ a criminal conviction except for indemnification of attorney.
			(3)	§145 only allows indemnification if the corp. office acted in good faith.
			(4)	§145(f) allows for indemnification for purposes broader than those stated in the statute, but they must not conflict with §145 and it’s good faith requirements (Waltuch).  There are also public policy limits on §145(f).
		c.	Authority for the corp. to directly purchase directors’ and officers’ liability insurance. (DE §145(g)) – it is allowed whether or not the corp. would have had the power to indemnify the director against the liability… can protect director against decisions made in bad faith as well.
		d.	Requirement for corp. to indemnify officers and directors for the “successful” defense of claims related to status as director or officer (DE §145(c)) – “success” does not mean moral exoneration… merely escape from an adverse judgment or other detriment (Waltuch) – result oriented.
		e.	Provides directors a defense to any action in which the director relied in good faith on an expert who was reasonably selected or on corp. records  (DE §141(e))
	2.	Judicially created
		a.	Heightened liability standard – gross negligence or willfulness
		b.	Proximate cause requirement
			(1)	A single director’s negligence may not itself “cause” a decision that occasions a loss and there may be many intervening causes of a loss.
			(2)	Original DE rule – P must prove proximate cause… P would not have suffered the loss if the director had acted properly (Barnes)
				Barnes v. Andrews – director was negligent for missing a few meetings, but the ct concluded that the company would have still gone under even if he was there – question of whether ct just felt bad for him though)
			(3)	DE created new after gross negligence standard established – If a P establishes prima facie board negligence, then the directors must come forward to prove either their due care or the entire fairness of the transaction (despite their negligence the outcome did not injure the corp.) (Cede)
		c.	BJ rule - a bad decision is not actionable, even if there were other courses of action that the bd. could have taken.  Even though a reasonable person standard is used, the BJ rule allows a ct to apply a penalty where there is an extreme deviation from ideal conduct.  The decision of a reasonable person is never really analyzed in BJ situation… ct defers to BJ of informed directors. 
D.	Passive and Absent Directors
	1.	In order to apply BJ rule, there must be some kind of decision… even a decision not to act is a decision.
	2.	Lack of director action is where cts have most often found breach of duty of care.
	3.	The director cannot abandon his office.  There are minimum objective standards for performance… going to meetings, going to the office, looking at financial statements, inquiring about the business (Francis)  Cannot be a director in name only.	
Francis – Mother not involved at all in business, but on bd of directors… did not catch her sons, the other directors, stealing from the close corp. to defraud creditors.  Held liable.
	4.	If a director does find wrongful activity among bd, their duty is to protest and resign… not clear if there are additional whistle-blowing duties – case by case analysis – proximate cause issues, but ct. inferred proximate cause because of additional duties in Francis.
E.	Compliance with Law
	1.	Board not normally liable for day to day legal activities carried out by employees.
	2.	However, if Bd on notice of illegal activity by employees, they have a duty to stop it.
		a.	Do not need actual notice… constructive notice is enough.  In order for there to be constructive notice, there must be red flags – cause for suspicion.
		b.	If no red flags, bd does not have duty to actively monitor for illegal activity.  Directors are entitled to rely on the honesty and integrity of subordinates until something occurs to put them on suspicion that something is wrong (Graham)
		c.	Creates incentive for directors to be passive and not catch red flags – however, see 	Caremark rule below.
	3.	Directors have obligation to reasonably assure that the corp. has an intelligence gathering system in place that provides reasonable assurance w/in the scope of the dir’s responsibility that the corp. is in compliance w/ the law and can make a reasonable BJ decision (Caremark).  
		-	However, system does not have to be perfect… standard is quite high to show lack of good faith by mgmt for systematic failure to exercise reasonable oversight (Caremark)
	4.	Criminal Sanctions
		a.	Breach of federal laws for environmental protection, OSHA, anti-trust acts, securities regulation, FDA, etc. 
		b.	Even though the corp. often indemnifies the agent for expenses, the agent may be put in jail and corp. is heavily fined.
		c.	The Sentencing Reform Act of 1984 created a system where base fines for illegal activities are adjusted for positive actions by the corp. and the bd. (e.g., preventative programs, cooperation in investigation).  This provides an incentive for the bd to monitor activities w/in the corp.
	5.	Knowing Violations of Law
		a.	If a dir. knowingly violates the law, he is liable for breaching duty of care even if the violation was in the s/h’s best interest (Miller)
		b.	Rule not justified on fidelity to shareholders, but rather on social policy.

VII.	Duty of Loyalty
A.	Introduction
	1.	Duty of Loyalty - Fiduciary must exercise his authority over the corp. processes or prop. in a good faith attempt to advance the corp’s interests and not simply to advance his own or other interests.
	2.	Who has duty of loyalty?  Directors, officers, and controlling s/h (generally >50% of stock, but also applies to a s/h who exercises control over the business affairs of the corp (Kahn)… 40% may be enough)
	3.	Why duty of loyalty? Principal cannot monitor all of agent’s activity – can’t spell out everything out in advance.  Loyalty functions as a default K term.
	4.	Duty of loyalty to whom?  Normally, no difference between corp & s/h, so no issue.  However, for cases where conflict, it must be analyzed.
		a.	Common law principal is that if conflict, the priority runs to s/h – the corp. is the s/h and the duty runs to them. – old Ford case on dividends vs. reducing product costs to help society buy cars… loyalty to s/h, screw society if conflict.
		b.	Constituency statutes
			(1)	Directors may (but not must) consider the welfare of other corp. constituencies (e.g., employees, creditors, the local community) in establishing corp. policy.  The bd has freedom to deal w/ other constituencies in whatever manner it believes best advance the long run interests of the corp.   
 			(2)	Most states have passed them (DE has not, but dicta in cases have questioned s/h supremacy)
	5.	Four categories of duty of loyalty issues:
		a.	Self-Dealing - direct conflicts of interest
		b.	Compensation
		c.	Transactions related to power over corp. prop – inside info. and corp. opportunity
		d.	Mixed motivation conflict – not direct, but director has some interest – e.g. M&A deals and takeover defenses.
B.	Self-Dealing
	1.	Originally, law did not allow self-dealing, but developed to modern law	
	2.	Self-dealing is allowed because corp. can often get better deal from someone w/ inside info rather than on open mkt, particularly in a small private corp.
	3.	Common law rule – can self-deal if full disclosure w/ approval and fair.  (Hayes Oyster)  However bd could only act if there were enough disinterested directors… otherwise it could not act.
	4.	Safe harbor statues - DE §144 (also RMBCA §8.61) – in response to problems w/ common law rule
		a.	No K or transaction between a corp. and its directors or officers shall be void or voidable merely because of self-dealing,
		b.	as long as either:
			(1)	The facts are disclosed to the bd and approved in good faith by disinterested members of the bd (even if disinterested directors are less than a quorum – interested directors count for quorum purposes)
			(2)	The facts are disclosed to the s/h and approved in good faith by disinterested s/h’s OR
			(3)	The transaction is fair
		c.	Fairness is not a requirement under RMCBA, but DE has held that even if the other two are met, still fairness/good faith issue (also Cookies (IA)).  The transaction is not per se voidable because of self-dealing if the above conditions are met, but still may be voidable anyway.  Otherwise, interested party could manipulate vote and get away w/ it
		d.	ALI §502 explicitly requires both disclosure and approval AND fairness.  However, disclosure shifts burden and creates reasonableness test in between BJ and fairness if approval sought before action taken. 
		(1)	Disclosure required if fairness because fairness tests a reasonably broad range and dir. may be able to get some benefit from corp. that it might not in the open mkt at the outside limits of the range. (Eisenberg essay)
		(2)	Fairness if disclosure because directors are never completely independent of their colleagues and often they may have immaterial interest.  Never completely impartial or objective. (Eisenberg essay) 
		e.	Interested s/h – CA statute §310 – interested s/h votes do not count, and DE has held that they do not count. 
		f.	However, SEC requires disclosure of related party transactions in 10-K.
		g.	Even if the safe harbor statutes are met, the claim is not extinguished.
			(1)	If the related party is a controlling s/h (either by % or de facto control), the  fairness burden shifts to the P (Wheelabrator Technologies).  Stricter scrutiny still required because controlling s/h may be able to influence or manipulate vote.  Same rule if disinterested director approval in parent-sub merger.
			(2)	If the related party is not a controlling s/h, the claim becomes a waste claim under the BJ rule (Wheelabrator Technologies).  In parent-sub merger if independent board approval and s/h approval, the BJ rule.
	4.	Waste
		a.	Even w/ disclosure and approval of majority of disinterested s/h, corp. still cannot commit waste.  Once full disclosure and approval, the claim can shift to a waste claim under BJ standard (Wheelabrator Technologies).
		b.	Waste is expenditure that no person could conclude was a reasonable transaction… an exchange of corp. assets for consideration so disproportionately small as to lie beyond the range at which any reasonable person might be willing to trade (Vogelberg) It is essentially a gift of corp. prop.
		c.	Waste can be authorized only by unanimous s/h action.
	5.	Not always clear what fairness is.
		a.	In Cookies, ct held that even though the majority owner was self-dealing at inflated amts, it was fair because he was making a lot of money for the corp.  The dissent thought fairness should be measured by the FMV of services or prop – Allen agrees w/ dissent, particularly since he was screwing minority s/h by not giving dividends.
		b.	However fairness always includes price and process – Weinberger v. UOP
		c.	Usually price in a range of fairness
	6.	If independent committee reviews a merger offer by a controlling s/h, the burden of fairness will shift to the minority s/h’s if the committee has real bargaining power and the controlling s/h does not dictate the terms of the merger (Kahn).  The committee must assent to the best deal that is a fair deal.  Fairness is not enough…. can’t just accept take it or leave it deal because it falls in fairness range.  The controlling s/h cannot coerce  committee or bd.
	7.	Always question of degree of materiality of conflict required to trigger fairness inquiry.  First P must prove that D was fiduciary and that there was a material conflict, otherwise BJ rule.  Then D must prove that the info was disclosed and/or the price was fair.
	8.	If breach, cts can void transaction or it can offer the trust rule of damages, which assumes best case scenario for beneficiaries or s/h.
	9.	Dividend payments between a sub and controlled parent can be a self-dealing transaction subject to entire fairness if improper motive is detected (Sinclair)  However, ct held only self-dealing if minority s/h does not receive equal distributions.
C.	Compensation
	1.	Incentive pay (may be overly or improperly motivated and take excessive risks) v. salary pay (lack of motivation)
	2.	Officers usually given non-transferable stock options that vest in several yrs w/ strike price > mkt price.  Corp. gets promise of future employment.
	3.	Salary decision is BJ for ordinary employees and officers who are not on the bd. – no conflict
	4.	If director, there is an inherent loyalty conflict… cts look to see if comp is fair.
		-	However, if non-coerced s/h ratification of comp on full info or disinterested director approval, then BJ rule… waste. (Vogelstein)
	5.	Options given to officers must be quid pro quo (waste w/o it) and reasonably related otherwise it will be waste (Vogelstein). Cannot give consideration for past performance.
	6.	SEC requires full public disclosure of total comp of top 5 corp. officers, including options.
D.	Use of Corp Property – Corp. Opportunity
	1.	When use of corp. prop. conflicts with duty of loyalty
		a.	Direct use of corp. property
			(1)	theft
			(2)	trading on inside info – misappropriation of an asset
		b.	Competition against the corp. itself – as part of loyalty, director cannot directly compete against the corp unless authorized - ALI §506.  Usually questions of geographic and product boundaries 
		c.	Usurping corporate opportunity
	2.	Corp. Opportunity
		a.	Identifying corp. opportunity v. personal opportunity
			(1)	General Tests for officers/directors:
				(a)	Legal interest test (Lagarde) – opportunity is corp. prop. if corp. has legal interest and director/officer gets in the middle – narrow interpretation… not really used today.
				(b)	Line of business test – (Guft v. Loft) – if related to the corp’s line of business, it is corp. opportunity – not always clear today what is corp’s line of business.  Can be extended pretty far to include suppliers and customers, and co’s that would provide economies of scale w/ the current operations – any opportunity that the corp would have a competitive advantage. 
				(c)	Fairness test – unfairness on specific facts – broadest test… includes more than the four factors below.
					(i)	Source of opportunity is important
						(A)	if came to dir. in his official capacity, it is generally corp. prop.
						(B)	if not in dir’s corp. capacity, it generally is not corp. prop.
					(ii)	Whether the opportunity is essential or not to the corp.
					(iii)	Whether the corp. has a reasonable expectation of the opportunity
					(iv)	Whether the director has wrongfully employed the resources of the corp in pursuing the opportunity.
			(2)	Controlling s/h – duty to minority s/h for controlling s/h to offer corp. opportunities.
				-	In Sinclair, parent liquidated sub through dividends instead of funding growth in other areas (it took the growth opportunity for itself).  The ct held that the parent was treated the same as sub, so no unfairness and therefore no breach of loyalty.  The growth opportunities were not directly related to the original mission of the sub… they were in different countries, while the sub was organized to drill for oil in Venezuela.
		b.	Legal Defensives
			(1)	The valid defenses:
				(a)	Legally impossible for corp. to do it
				(b)	Practically impossible for corp. to do it (e.g., financial problems)
				 	–	Burden on director/officer to prove financial inability of corp.
				(c)	The corp. didn’t want to do it
					-	Cts generally want dir./officer to bring it to the board first and let them decide if they want it… avoids issue of whether the corp. might have taken the opportunity.  Safest thing to advise as a lawyer.  However, a formal presentation to the board is not required by law in DE (Broz) (however, the ALI §505 requires it)
			(2)	Bd is subject to BJ rule if bd exercised good faith and independence
			(3)	The analysis of when it is a corp. opportunity or whether a defense exists occurs when opportunity comes to the officer/dir, not when he decides to take it (Broz)
			(4)	If there is a merger in process, there is no duty to present to the other corp’s bd until merger is complete (Broz)
		c.	Remedies for usurpation of corp. opportunity - court options are flexible
			(1)	money
			(2)	place a trust on the prop. that belongs to the corp.
			(3)	force conveyance to the corp or condition the prop’s use.
VIII.	Voting
A.	Foundation of Voting Laws
	1.	Theory
		a.	Common stock votes because it faces the greatest risk
			-	Dual class capitalizations allowed (different voting rights) because one s/h may place a greater premium for control – costs more for greater voting rights.
			-	Technically, the corp. can set up voting however it wants in charter, even giving voting rights to debt.. not normally done though
		b.	Collective action problems
			(1)	When corp. large enough and ownership is heavily divided, no one’s stock ownership gives them sufficient incentive to monitor management.  As a result, waste and inefficiency will go uncorrected.
			(2)	However, problems w/ collective action have been reduced in recent yrs
				(a)	Rise of institutional investors
				(b)	Amendment of proxy rules by SEC in 1992 to allow s/h to coordinate better
	2.	Voting – done by:
		a.	annual meeting – mandated by law – DE §211 – must receive notice and meet quorum requirement
		b.	special meeting – right of s/h to call it depends on state law
			(1)	DE - §211(d) – s/h can call special meeting only if they are authorized to do so by the corp. charter. 
			(2)	RMBCA – meeting required if 10% of voting power of s/h requires it
		c.	written consent – DE §228 – can take action w/o meeting if written consent.  Requires the consent of all shares outstanding (not majority of s/h meeting).
	3.	Right to vote on:
		a.	Election of directors
		b.	Fundamental corp. changes (e.g., mergers, sale of substantially all assets)
		c.	Charter amendments
		-	also normally allowed to vote on other things (e.g., auditors, stock option plans), but bd not forced to have vote on other issues
	4.	Approval thresholds and quorum requirements
		a.	Directors must be elected by a plurality of votes at the annual meeting, but no quorum is required (DE §216)
		b.	Other actions put to a vote require an affirmative vote of the majority of the quorum… quorum required.
		c.	DE §251 requires vote of majority of outstanding stock entitled to vote for approval of a merger agreement.
B.	Proxy voting
	1. 	Voting by proxy – DE §212 – do not have to actually attend meeting – reduces cost of voting and collective action problems
	2.	Reimbursement for Proxy Expenses
		a.	If corp. reimburses the s/h for voting expenses, it increases the incentive to coordinate and decreases the apathy
		b.	Effect of reimbursing: Mgmt v. Insurgents
			(1)	Mgmt’s fees reimbursed – it increases incentive to have proxies, but helps keep mgmt in power.
			(2)	Insurgent’s fees reimbursed – gives minority s/h a better voice in the corp, encourage democracy, and improve monitoring… but may become wasteful.
		c.	Rules
			(1)	Current mgmt can get reimbursed whether they win or lose as long as it is in good faith.  Proxy contests must be over policy, not power.
			(2)	Insurgents who win in good faith can get reimbursement by s/h ratification after they repay themselves (Rosenfeld) – power from DE §141
				-	If they did not get ratified by s/h then entire fairness test
			(3)	Insurgents who lose after acting in good faith will NOT get reimbursed – prevents abuses by insurgents and waste – only insurgent proxy statements w/ reasonable chance to win will go forward.
C.	Manipulation of Voting Systems – Fiduciary Duties in Voting
	1.	Directors must act in good faith in setting up voting system (Schnell)
		Schnell – mgmt changed bylaw to move up annul meeting a month to prevent insurgent s/h from having enough time to prepare a proxy fight.  Although they had legal power to change bylaws, they had duty to do so in good faith… breach of loyalty.
	2.	Directors cannot directly interfere w/ the vote even if in good faith unless there is a compelling reason.  (Blasius Industries)	.
		Blasius – corp. raider wanted to use LBO to buy corp. and sell its assets.  Mgmt thought it was a bad plan and amended bylaws to add more directors to fight it.  Mgmt acted in good faith, not negligent, and had legal power.  However, ct held that voting is special action closer to direct agency rules and cannot interfere even in good faith.
		-	Dir. action that interferes w/ the voting process is presumptively inequitible.
	3.	A corp cannot vote on its own treasury stock
	4.	A corp cannot vote on stock that it owns indirectly indirectly (through another corp it owns – circular voting) if it can elect a majority of directors. (Spieser v. Baker and DE §160(c)).  If not majority, ct determines if there is significant control and if there is a proper business reason for the structure other than mgmt entrenchment.  Voting effect must be collateral.
	5.	Vote selling (Schreber)
		a.	Vote selling is illegal per se if its purpose is to defraud other stockholders 
		-	Vote selling pollutes the integrity of the voting process and increases agency costs since control is not in line w/ ownership.
		b.	If not fraudulent intent… good faith effort to help corp… transaction must be viewed as voidable transaction subject to intrinsic fairness standard.
			-	If s/h ratification after full disclosure, then the claim is cured.	
		c.	Voting trusts are allowed – DE §216 - a formal arrangement where legal title of stock is transferred to 3rd party as trustee by K w/ s/h – creates perpetual voting blocks.
		d.	Super-voting stock is allowed
		e.	Major exchanges do not allow stock selling or super-voting except for IPO’s who can sell low voting stock.
	6.	S/h collective action problem
		a.	Market model - s/h seeks to change corp. policy by aggregating votes via mergers and tender offers
		b.	Political model – activist s/h (institutional investor) seeks to change corp. policy by developing voting support from disbursed s/h rather than by purchasing voting power.
			-	Has become more prevalent due to increased institutional holdings and decreases in collective action problems – mgmt will negotiate w/ institutional investors if they know that they are going to lose proxy fights.
		c. 	Advantages of political over market model
			(1)	Political model offers more flexibility
				(a)	cheaper transaction costs
				(b)	can address specific problem w/o change in control
			(2)	Political model more democratic system – market model leads to public suspicion.
			(3)	Market model promotes instability in governance and only offers one remedy for problem…. takeover.
D.	Federal Regulation – Proxy Rules
	1.	Federal securities regulation generally
		a.	1934 Act establishes SEC, anti-fraud provisions, and gives SEC authority to set up other regulatory organizations
		b.	1933 Act regulates the distribution and sale of securities – focuses on registration and disclosure
		c.	Original statutes did not provide remedy for violations… only intended for SEC to use for injunctions.  However, cts read private causes of action into the statutes. 
	2.	Proxy rules – disclosure and s/h communication
		a.	§14(a) of 1934 act – makes it unlawful to solicit proxies in violation of SEC rules
		b.	§14 generally empowers the SEC to make regulations… §14 itself is not very detailed.  Regulation is under 14A
		c.	SEC has jurisdiction if interstate commerce or traded on an exchange… traditionally, interstate commerce was read very broadly, but SEC has started pulling back.
		d.	Solicitation & proxy defined by rule 14a-1
			(1)	Proxy and solicitation are expansively defined.  A proxy can be any solicitation or consent whatsoever, and even failure to object (Rule 14a-1(f)).
			(2)	Solicitation – rule 14a-1(l) – includes any request for a proxy, any request to execute or revoke a proxy, any proxy furnished to cause the procurement, withholding, or revocation of a proxy.
			(3)	S/h statement of why he intends to vote a particular way is not a proxy solicitation (Rule 14a-1(l)(2)(iv)).  Neither is the furnishing of a proxy form to a s/h upon the unsolicited request of the s/h (Rule 14a-1(l)(2)(i))
		e.	Rule 14a-2 – meant to ensure that most proxy solicitations defined in 14a-1 will be subject to regulation.
			Exemptions:
			(1)	Solicitations to less than 10 s/h. (Rule 14a-2(b)(2))
			(2)	Originally, SEC made it difficult for informal communications, but in 1992, they added 14a-2(b)(1) to relieve s/h of liab. to help s/h communication to give them more voice in the corp. – does not include solicitation by person not seeking directly or indirectly a proxy and doesn’t furnish or request a proxy or authorization.
			(3)	Proxy voting advice by professional advisors (Rule 14a-2(b)(3))
			(4)	Solicitations by brokers (Rule 14a-2(a)(1))
			(5)	Solicitations by media ads informing s/h where to get proxy statement (Rule 14a-2(a)(6))
		f.	Rule 14a-3 – No one may be solicited w/ a proxy unless they are furnished with a proxy statement containing the information specified in Schedule 14A.  Disclosure is required in the solicitation:
			(1)	about the company if by mgmt or
			(2)	about the s/h and his holdings if by a s/h.
		g.	Rules 14a-4 & 5 regulate the form of the proxy
			-	If you solicit a proxy, it must be in form and have full disclosure.
		h.	Rule 14a-6	lists the formal filing requirements
		i.	Rule 14a-7	sets the list-or-mail rule – a co. must either provide a s/h list or mail the dissident’s proxy statement and solicitation materials to record holders to assure that all holders can receive copies.
		j.	Rule 14a-11 contains special rules applicable to contested directors
	3.	Rule 14a-9 – False or Misleading statements
		a.	Designed to give SEC enforcement power to issue injunctions.  In 1960’s ct read implied private rights of action in statute (Borak)	
		b.	Must be have
			(1)	misstatement or omission of fact
				(a)	Requires all material info to be disclosed.  Can include s/h ownership in a tender offer
				(b)	An opinion can be a fact (Virginia Bankshares) – banker gave opinion of fair price, but clearly way off – either subjective intent or so wrong that no reasonable person knowing the facts could believe that he was speaking the truth.
			(2)	that is material
				(a)	Something that a reasonable person would regard as significant
				(b)	Does not necessarily have to actually change the way a person votes (Mills – ct held price was fair and therefore lack of disclosure was unimportant)
				(c)	Total mix of info - if info is already published or known elsewhere it does not have to be disclosed.  Includes info in newspapers, but not everything filed w/ SEC.	
			(3)	and caused a loss
				(a)	Causation is presumed if proxy solicitation was essential link in accomplishment of transaction (Mills)
				(b)	Even if P did not vote for the transaction, he still has a case if other s/h were fooled and transaction went through. 
			(4)	and jurisdiction – satisfied if listed on exchange or interstate commerce.
			-	Private action brings problem of entrepreneurial lawyers tying to find a suit.
		c.	Mental state/culpability requirement under 14(a)
			(1)	None required for injunctions
			(2)	For civil tort claims for damages, torts normally require some intent.  Supreme Ct has not resolved the mental state requirement – intentional, neg, or S/L, but usually require high standard… fraud, maybe recklessness.  2nd & 3rd Cir. have allowed negligence.
		d.	Private action also allowed under state law – DE – Brinkett – any time a bd makes a public statement, if a s/h reasonably relies on the statement, he may have a cause of action.
		e.	Remedies
			(1)	No federal cause of action for fair price to s/h in merger, but there is in state laws.
			(2)	If you establish a wrong under 14a-9, a fed ct. will not try to determine fairness of price – usually injunctions to fully disclose info… corrective disclosure.
			(3)	Mills contemplated that cts might award injunctive relief, recission, or monetary damages.
			(4)	P is entitled attorney’s fees for policing the corp.
	4.	14a-8 – access to corp. proxies by individual s/h
		a.	If s/h can get access to proxy, it saves the s/h money
		b.	requirements/limitations
			(1)	Must have $2K worth or 1% of outstanding voting shares for at least 1 yr
			(2)	Supporting statement must be less than 500 words
			(3)	1 per s/h per meeting
		c.	Registrar has right to reject application for proxy
			(1)	Information overload if no screening
			(2)	14a-8(i) lists other reasons why corp. can s/h keep proxy out… e.g., false info, proposal illegal by state or fed law, improper form, not proper for s/h action under state law, proposal failed miserably in the recent past etc. 	
			(3)	Corp must explain omission of s/h proxy
		d.	SEC now usually allows politically oriented s/h proposals w/ respect to personnel to be included (reversal of Cracker Barrel – gay partners benefits)		

IX.	Trading in Corp Securities
A.	Common Law of Directors Duties
	1.	Common law fraud – elements: (1) false statement (2) materiality (3) privity (4) justifiable reliance (5) scienter (6) injury (7) causation
	2.	Fiduciaries were held to a higher standard that common law fraud – equitable fraud – beneficiary must be fully informed, competent, and the deal must be fair
		a.	However, duty was to corp and not s/h… only stock purchased from corp.
		b.	When director bought stock from s/h no duty to disclose (majority rule).  Minority rule required disclosure.
		c.	In Strong v. Repide, Supreme Ct came up w/ intermediate rule - director must disclose in face to face transactions if special peculiar facts that director knows (e.g. a merger).  However, it does not apply to market transactions (Goodwin v. Agassiz)
	3.	Why inside info laws
		a.	it represents breach of duty of person w/ inside info towards employer
		b.	it is unfair to person on other side of the transaction
		c.	must be done to preserve capital market… needed for fair playing field for people to want to enter market
	d.	efficiency – forces disclosure
4.	Modern fiduciary duty theories
		a.	Corp. against director – corp can recover profits that the agent has made by using information that he learned in connection with his corp. work – duty of loyalty.
			(1)	Can be used for good news or bad news.	
			(2)	However, doesn’t compensate s/h who lost money and corp is not really harmed… gets windfall.
			(3)	Not allowed in some jurisdictions (Freeman) because fed securities law already exists.  Good law in NY & DE
		b.	Duty of bd to disclose to s/h.- required in DE – replicate duty imposed by 10b-5.
B.	Section 16(b)
	1.	Officers, directors, and 10% s/h of any class of stock must publicly report their trading in the company’s securities and are required to pay to the corp. any profit made from purchase and sale transactions in the co’s securities that occur w/in 6 mos.
	2.	Does not care about intent… objective rule
		a.	The rule is over-inclusive in that it includes innocent trades made w/o inside info and under-inclusive in that it misses gains from inside info made on swings > 6 mos.
		b.	However, lower cost enforcement – strict rules mean that it is not litigated much.
	3.	Do not have to be the same shares, only shares in the same class of securities of the corp.
	4.	Goes back 6 mos. and forward 6 mos. to see if offsetting sale or purchase that creates profit swing. 
	5.	10% s/h
		a.	They are not subject until they are over 10%… the purchase that puts them over 10% is not subject to §16(b).
		b.	If separate transactions, they are not grouped together.  Can sell enough to get you below 10% and then sell the rest.  
	6.	Officer defined in Rule 16a-1(f) – normal officers including VP’s in charge of business units, divisions, or functions, and any other person who performs a policy-making function
	7.	Options, short selling, and futures are included as sales and purchases.
	8.	Officers and directors do not need to be in their position when they sell for the rule to apply, but they must be at the beginning.
	9.	In mergers, must have actual control or inside info.  If no control over merger or access to inside info it is OK, especially if adversarial relationship (Kern).  Deviation from objectivity.
C.	Rule 10b-5
	1.	§10 does not provide clear rule or cause of action – Rule 10b-5 provides the rules and causes of action.  Originally designed to give SEC injunctions, but extended to provide private causes of action.
	2.	Federal cts provide some benefits over state cts… class action, nationwide service of process, better discovery rules.  Even if common law fraud, s/h may prefer fed law.
	3.	Elements of 10b-5
		a.	Claimant must be buyer or seller – “in connection with”
			-	D does not need to be buyer or seller
		b.	false or misleading statement
			(1)	Includes omissions
			(2)	Does not actually have to be a fraudulent statement, it can be an act (Goldberg) – violates purpose of 10b-5.
			(3)	Must actually have fraud or deceit to have 10b-5 claim… breach of loyalty is not enough. (Santa Fe) – did not want to nationalize corp. law
		c.	duty to disclose for omissions – duty not relevant for false statements actually made
			(1)	Traditional rule is for people in possession of inside info to disclose info or abstain from trading – equal access theory (Texas Gulf Sulphur) – still true for directors, officers, and insiders with relationship of trust and confidence to corp.
			(2)	However, in Chiarella, Supreme Ct held that the person trading on the info must have a fiduciary duty to the party involved to be liable (could buy target of merger) – not equal info position.  Must be relationship of trust and confidence – more than just fiduciary duty (e.g., accountants and bankers).
			(3)	There is no direct fiduciary duty for tippees (Dirks), but they step into the shoes of the tipper if there is a fiduciary duty that is breached by an insider and the tippee is aware that this might be a breach.  Whether there is a breach depends on whether the insider had a direct or indirect benefit.  Indirect benefits include reputational gains and tips meant as gifts to friends.  SEC and cts often read this broadly.  Not equal info theory. Intended to create a safe harbor for analysts.
				-	In response to Dirks and Chiarella, SEC passed rule 14e-3 in response – imposes duty to disclose or abstain from trading on any person who obtains inside info. about a tender offer that originates with either the offer or the target.  Thus, the SEC reintroduced the equal access theory in corp. takeovers.
			(4)	Misappropriation theory under 10b-5 (O’Hagan) – if misappropriating inside info from co. in which you have duty with, you are liable… therefore if you have duty to buyer in merger, you cannot buy target.  Person in confidential relationship w/ either party must refrain.
			-	Dirks and Chiarella narrowed 10b-5, but O’Hagan and rule 14e-3 expanded it.
		d.	materiality – normal test – depends on probability that the event will occur and the anticipated magnitude of the event.
		e.	scienter
			(1)	Did D know that it was public and material?
	(2)	Standard not clear - intent definitely, but recklessness may be enough enough (Ernst & Ernst) – not clear rule.
		f.	reliance on misstatement.
			(1)	Reliance on the statement was important under common law, but difficult to do in mkt. Also causes problems for class actions, since not everyone had same reliance.
			(2)	For misstatement - Fraud on the market theory – reliance is proven by the market price of the stock (Basic v. Levinson).  However, it is rebuttable… D can show actual lack of reliance by the person or that the statement did not affect the stock price.
			(3)	For omission – reliance will be presumed where duty to disclose exists and a material matter is omitted. (Affiliated Ute Citizens)
		g.	causation
			(1)	Transaction causation - Causal relationship between non-disclosure and buy/sell decision – were you going to trade anyway.
			(2)	Loss causation – Proof that the investment loss was not simply a result of the economic character of the investment but was related to the content of the statement or matter omitted.
		h.	fed jurisdiction – satisfied if listed on exchange or interstate commerce.
	4.	Remedies for 10b-5
		a.	Most cases by SEC for injunction
		b.	Significant SEC fines and sanctions
		c.	P can recover damages, but they are capped at the amount of profit that the insider made (or losses they avoided)… based on unjust enrichment. (Ligget) – not all may be due to inside information though.
			-	Insider Trading and Securities Fraud Enforcement Act of 1988 - §20A – codified Liggit rule.
X.	Mergers and Acquisitions
A.	Background
	1.	Economic motives for mergers – economies of scale, economies of scope, replacement of under-performing mgmt, vertical integration, unused tax benefits, and product diversification 
	2.	Evolution of M&A law
		a.	Originally no power to merge
		b.	Then s/h unanimity
		c.	Era of majority vote (late 19th century) – appraisal rights were given as a trade-off to dissenting s/h.  Also instituted class vote provisions.  Had to receive shares in surviving corp.
		d.	Era of cash consideration – only bare majority of each stock class required and the consideration the s/h receives can take any approved form.
B.	Mechanics of Mergers
	1.	Types of M&A transactions
		a.	Asset purchase
		b.	Stock purchase
		c.	Merger
	2.	Asset purchase
		a.	Cannot sell “all or substantially all” of the assets of a company w/o s/h approval	in addition to the bd’s - DE §271 (RMBCA §12.02 similar)… what is “substantially all”?	
			(1)	Test for substantially all (Katz)
				(a)	Are assets vital to the operation of the corp?
				(b)	Is it out of the ordinary course of business?
				(c)	Does it substantially affect the existence/purpose of the corp?
			(2)	In Katz, ct read very low percentage of assets (51%) as substantially all, but test was tainted by judicial motivations... judge trying to find a way out.  Ct has not gone this low since.
			(3)	RMBCA §12.02 comments indicate that it is synonymous with nearly all (90%+)
		b.	Significant transaction costs, but generally liabilities are not transferred (however, cts have on occasion transferred the liabilities, particularly where they detected improper motive where they would normally pierce the corp. veil)
	3.	Stock acquisition – tender offers
		a.	Do not need approval of the target co’s bd of directors, but tender offer can be costly.
		b.	The liabilities of the target corp. and the acquirer are unaffected by a transfer of control.
	4.	Mergers – two corps merge into one
		a.	The surviving or resulting corp. owns all of the assets and liabilities of the both original corps.
		b.	The transaction costs are not normally that excessive, but there may be empire building agency costs that produce inefficiency.
		c.	Procedures in authorizing a merger
			(1)	negotiate an agreement
			(2)	board approval
			(3)	s/h approval – both corp s/h get to vote in some circumstances
			(4)	dissenters normally get a right of appraisal
			-	most agreements have a fiduciary out in case there is a highly negative response (e.g., too many appraisal requests)
		d.	No right to vote to surviving corp unless (DE §251(f)):
			(1)	Charter of corp. is changed,
			(2)	Terms of characteristics of the stock are modified, or
			(3)	20% of the surviving stock is issued in merger – only get to vote on significant mergers
		e.	Short-form merger – merger when 1 s/h owns 90% of the stock – no 10% s/h to force a vote – can force merger by themselves… no right for minority s/h to vote.
		f.	Triangular merger – merger of target into a newly created subsidiary to shield each other from the liabilities of each corp.
C.	Appraisal Rights
	1.	Legislative quid pro quo given to s/h when legislatures made mergers subject to maj. vote
	2.	S/h’s who object to the fundamental corp. transaction are afforded the right to dissent and bought out by the corp. at a fair price 
	3.	Appraisal rights also serve as a protection against majority self-dealing
	4.	Fair value is determined by the ct
		a.	However, if there is a widely traded market in the stock, then statutes takes a “market out” and value the stock at the market price (DE §262(b)(1)).  However, the market already reflects the expected outcome of the deal… so the effects of the merger are not excluded
		b.	DE §262(h) – ct seeks to measure the proportionate value of the company as a going concern free of any element that might be attributed to the merger.  However, merger price often exceeds appraisal value.  Value can be determined by any technique that business people use for valuation, including discounted cash flow method.
	5.	All states provide appraisal rights for mergers and some provide them for other fundamental corp. changes as well.  A majority of states make appraisal available where there is a charter amendment that requires s/h approval.  DE only allows it for mergers.
		-	The need for appraisal rights is debated… some people do not think that they are necessary since minority s/h interests are represented by majority… they can always go and sell in the market as well.  By providing appraisal you give s/h put in the stock.
	6.	The corp. can expand its appraisal remedy in its charter if it wants to (DE §262(c)).
	7.	S/h must actually place a dissenting vote to get appraisal remedy – can’t vote for or not vote.
	8.	If self-dealing, minority can attack price under fiduciary issues… total fairness – better remedy than appraisal.  In Pearlman, ct held that in a two-step transaction, the s/h can argue entire fairness and breach of duty of loyalty once the buyer has become a controlling s/h… however, does not always work that well.
D.	Defacto Merger Doctrine
	1.	Cts can call a transaction a merger even if it does not meet the formal requirements of a merger (Glen Alden- corp. called it a reorg.).  If the consequences are the same that would result from a merger, a ct may ignore formalities, and give full merger treatment, including votes and appraisal rights to dissenting s/h
	2.	DE ct, however, was strict on formalities in Hariton, and did not allow de facto merger.  Based on the doctrine of independent legal significance – provides certainty of the law.
	3.	Most states have eliminated de facto mergers through statutes or cases… mostly academic now.
E.	Director’s Fiduciary Obligations in Mergers
	1.	In M&A, directors have an intermediate kind of conflict, so intermediate standard of duty applied… in between BJ and entire fairness.
	2.	Unocal
		a.	Bd can take action to prevent takeover if:
			(1) there is a legitimate threat to corp (e.g., low price, coercive two tier offer) and
			(2) the reaction is reasonably related to the threat.
			-	if these two are met, then BJ rule.
		b.	Even though there is a conflict, they may be properly motivated to help the corp.
		c.	Ct also allowed bd to discriminate against certain s/h… did not have to treat all s/h the same. 
	3.	Poison Pills
		a.	When ct allowed unequal treatment of s/h in Unocal, they paved way for poison pill
		b.	Pill affects control rights rather w/o significant effect to capital contributions.
		c.	How the pill is created:
			(1)	Bd declares dividend of preferred stock that they create from blank check preferred authorized in charter (do not need s/h approval to create pill).
			(2)	The preferred stock usually provides the right to buy stock in the corp., but it is highly out of the money… essentially worthless.
			(3)	However, upon certain triggering events, usually if someone becomes a 20% s/h (percent is flexible) w/o bd approval, additional provisions detach from the security that that give special rights to s/h that make takeover extremely expensive.
			(4)	The bd can normally pull the pill at any time.
		d.	Two kinds of pills
			(1)	Flip-over pills – s/h gets right upon merger to buy stock of acquirer at reduced price.  Legally allowed since when the person does the merger, he gets the obligations of the co. he is merging with.  However, raiders figured out a way around it by taking control, but never formally merging (no defacto mergers in most states).  Not used much.
			(2)	Flip-in pills – the other s/h’s can buy the stock of the corp. itself at discount… dilution effect.  The person triggering the rights does not have the right to buy the stock at a discount.
		e.	In Moran, the ct held that poison pills were valid and that s/h do not have a right to receive takeover premiums.
		f	However, the ct in Moran also said that there is a fiduciary duty to remove the pill if there is no threat to s/h… it is in their best interests.
			-	In Interco, the ct forced the bd to pull the pill… an all cash for stock merger at a very reasonable price where the bd had time to search for alternatives.  However, ct indicated that more is necessary to force pill redemption in Time-Warner.
		g.	Poison pills help the collective action problems, but hurt s/h by giving too much power to the bds.
	4.	Revlon duties
		a.	Once there is a definite transfer of control of the company, the duty of the bd becomes that of an auctioneer, where they have to maximize the value given to current s/h.  Must focus on short-term.
			-	The ct will make its own determination about the reasonableness of steps you take to get the highest price… this includes deal defense provisions.  Not BJ, reasonableness test – (e.g., if termination fee too high, it is breach)
		b.	The bd has no reason not to maximize s/h wealth if they are selling the company other than bad faith.
		c.	What is transfer of control?
			(1)	Sale for cash-out merger – yes – Revlon
			(2)	Stock for stock merger
				(a)	No, if majority still held by general public (Paramount v. QVC) – public for public stock merger
				(b)	However, if private party owns significant block of the surviving corp. after the merger, then Revlon duties. (Block does not have to be 50%, but usually must be more than 30%)
			(3)	Not clear rule if part stock, part cash merger – usually depends on % of cash and the degree to which the synergy of the merger creates value - more synergy and use of bd’s BJ, then more deference by ct.
		d.	Revlon duties may also be implicated if corp is breaking up corp. for sale…  Once the directors has abandoned the corp’s continued existence. (Time-Warner)
		e.	Rationale for rule
			(1)	S/h lose their control and control premium.  Bd must maximize the control premium or provide protections for the s/h. (QVC seems to indicate that if there is minority protection in charter of new corp. then there might not be Revlon duties).
			(2)	The s/h can only look in the short-term if they are bought out… long-term value is meaningless – bd knowledge of the potential of the business is meaningless to the s/h to whom they owe a duty.
	5.	Bd responses to attempts by buyers to remove bd before merger through proxy so that pill can be pulled.
		a.	Pull back annual meeting (Schnell) – cannot do it if in bad faith.
		b.	Sell block of enhanced voting right preferred stock to friendly investors – not clear legal result – have blank check authority, but cannot interfere w/ election.
		c.	Form new corp. with staggered bd. – disallowed by independent legal significant (ITT v. Hilton)
		d.	Dead-hand or slow-hand poison pill (Quickturn) – Only continuing directors can pull pill (current bd members or people they nominate) - disallowed because it impedes s/h vote and creates two classes of directors.
F.	Merger Agreements
	1.	Lockups – term for any K’s collateral to a merger agreement involving a change in the control structure over corp's assets.
		a.	Usually right to buy stock or options at discount if deal does not go through
		b.	“Crown Jewel” lockup – right to buy the most significant assets of the corp at a discount if deal falls through. 
		c.	Justified because
			(1)	As part of normal negotiations, buyer will want provision and seller will resist it.
			(2)	Promotes initial investigation by acquirer – will not risk investment to negotiate if the target can just get up an walk away w/ offer to someone else – free rider problem.  If too much, though it may impede transactions, in which case, it will probably not be held valid by a ct. in a Revlon setting.
		d.	Triggers
			(1)	Failure of the bd to recommend the proposal to s/h in light of the emergence of a higher offer.
			(2)	An actual rejection of the merger proposal by s/h
			(3)	A later sale of the asset to another firm for asset lock-ups
	2.	Termination fees – fees if preliminary deal falls apart.  Justified since the buyer has invested significant money in finding the deal, so they have the right to receive back some of this investment.  The amount should be a good faith estimate of the cost, usually around 3% of the deal.  If it is too much, it prevents competing bids and is a breach to s/h.  Same justifications as lock-ups.
	3.	No shop – prevents the seller from shopping w/ the terms of the deal, but it can respond to solicitations by others
		-	no talk – seller cannot talk to anyone else… can’t take offers at all.  Ct disallowed no-talk clause w/ no fiduciary out.
	4.	Fiduciary out – do not have to follow provisions (e.g., lock-up or termination fee) if they would violate fiduciary duty.  Usually because of post-negotiation analysis of duties.
	5.	Warrantees – establish conditions necessary for closing of transaction (e.g., full rights to property involved) and give K breach damages for violations.  Most useful if target is controlled by another corp or individual who can stand behind the representations… most useful in private deals.
G.	Premium in Sale of Stock
	1.	If buyer wants a control block, he must pay a premium.   Cannot buy on market because price will adjust as he buys more and may not be able to get everyone to sell.
		a.	Buyer pays the  control premium because he believes that he can create more value if he is in control w/ new mgmt.  Creates efficient mkt and eliminates bad mgrs.
		b.	However, in Insurance Shares case (1940’s), buyer paid premium so that he could then loot the corp.  S/h who were robbed sued sellers for breach of care and won.  Ct held that sellers should have know that something was wrong because of high premium.  However, not really good law anymore and Allen disagrees.  Only duty of seller to is inquire and follow up if reasonable suspicion (e.g., buyers w/ history of fraud)… the seller is not an insurer. 
	2.	When you sell shares you can sell for premium which you do not have to share (Zetlin).
	-	Pearlman v. Feldmann – Minority s/h can share control premium if the corp loses something significant in transfer of control and significant premium.  Not good law though.  The value that a corp loses in the transfer is part of the control premium.
	3.	If large block sold that would probably give control, but less than majority (50%), the deal can be contingent on replacing directors with buyer’s people (Essex) – assures buyer of immediate control
	4.	When majority s/h contemplates selling his block of stock to a private party where the min. s/h may be prejudiced, he has a duty to inform minority s/h that he is selling (Brown v. Halbert)